Table 1 Epidrug classifications based on their mechanisms

DNMTis

Disulfiram

Blocking the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, targeting drug efflux pumps, induction of production of ROSs, activating the JNK and p38 MAPK signalling pathways, inhibition of NFκB and the proteasome activity

[193]

Zebularine

Downregulation of GRP78 and p62 and upregulates a pro-apoptotic CHOP

[74]

Decitabine

PD-1 blockade

[194]

Azacitidine

At low doses, azacytidine targets CRC-initiating cells by inducing viral mimicry via the MDA5/MAVS/IRF7 pathway

[72]

Zebularine

Induces p53-dependent ER stress and autophagy. Increases the expression level of let-7b, which functions as tumour suppressor microRNA

[195]

HDACIs

Sulforaphane

Blocks Wnt/β-catenin signalling

[196]

Vorinostat

Autophagy modulation

[197]

Resminostat

Amplification of AKT signalling

[198]

Belinostat

Induction of apoptosis

[199]

Panobinostat

Arresting the G1, G2/M cell cycle, activation of tumour suppressor gene death-associated protein kinase (DAPK), induction of autophagy, apoptosis and cell death

[200, 201]